Political unrest in Mexico and the Western United States was another motivating factor that led the U.S to believe the removal of the Navajo would be beneficial to it. This conflict was rooted in years of the subduing and attempted indoctrination of the Navajo. It is impossible to understand how the complex emergency of The Long Walk happened without first understanding the conditions that led up to it. The following is a general timeline of the main events that affected the Navajo since they first met the Spanish.
Timeline breakdown and analysis:
(1582) First Spanish Contact with the Navajo
Ever since the Spaniard Francisco Coronado (illustrated to the right) first encountered the Navajo in 1582, the Navajo, Pueblo Indians (American Indian tribe who live in pueblos in the Rio Grande area), and Spanish have had a precarious relationship. (The Long Walk, Denetdale) Most of the Spanish expeditions at that time went exploring to claim land for Spain, to convert people to Christianity, and to find gold. This excursion was no different. When the Spanish first came to the Southwest, they claimed the land in the name of the Spanish Crown and the natives living there as vassals of the Spanish feudal system. (The Navajos of Utah, Maryboy and Begay) They established their settlements in the most fertile ground available, which was also where the Pueblo villages were. Fighting over resources, such as the fertile land, led to the first interaction between the Spanish and the natives being less than friendly. This first contentious interaction paved the way for years of military conflict between almost everyone living in the areas of present day Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas. (First Contact with the Navajo, Carey)
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(Francisco Vasquez De Coronado. Digital image. Land of the Brave. Siteseen, Feb. 2017. Web. 13 Mar. 2017.)
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(1582-1680) Spanish/Pueblo/Navajo Conflict
Along with taking all of their resources, the Spanish created missionaries to try to convert the Pueblo people to Christianity. Besides the Pueblo, the Spanish attempted to do the same indoctrination to the Navajo as well. (The Long Walk, Denetdale) The Navajo resisted this effort causing the Spanish to conduct slave raids into Navajo land. Many Pueblo were forced to join in these attacks, which increased hostility between the three groups even further. Many of the captured Navajo were forced to work for the Spanish or were sent to mines as far away as Mexico. (The Navajos of Utah, Maryboy and Begay) Any Navajo who escaped slavery brought back elements of Spanish culture. Though this time was very hostile and unsafe for the three groups involved, each group’s culture adapted and grew to contain more of the customs of the others. (The Spanish and the Navajos, Carey) This period, aside from just weakening the Navajo, set a precedent for the military conflict and political unrest that became normal in that region. (Broken Rainbow)
In one infamous incident, residents of Acoma Pueblo were attacked by [the Spanish]; adult males who survived the attack were punished and tortured by having one foot cut off and being enslaved.
-The Navajos of Utah, Maryboy and Begay
(1680) Pueblo Rebellion
(Mathew. Painting of Pope. Digital image. Turquoise Skies. Tskies.inc, 14 Apr. 2015. Web. 13 Mar. 2017.)
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In 1680 the Pueblo finally couldn’t take the violence of the Spanish anymore, so, led by a medicine man named Popé (illustrated to the left), they revolted. The Navajo and some other neighboring groups joined in this attack which came to be known as the Pueblo Rebellion of 1680, but “from a native perspective, it might more appropriately be termed a war for independence.” (The Navajos of Utah, Maryboy and Begay) In the revolt approximately 400 Spaniards were killed and the rest fled out of the territory. This was the beginning of a decade-long peace for the Native Americans living in the Southwest. As will be discussed later, the Pueblo Rebellion connects more recently to The Long Walk because it was the basis for a later attack by the Navajo on the U.S. Fort Defiance. (The Long Walk, Denetdale)
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(1690-1700) Return of the Spanish Allied with the Ute, Comanche, and Pawnee
This decade of peace, though very beneficial to the lives of the Navajo, also allowed them to separate into distinct groups because they no longer needed to band together against a common enemy. From around 1690-93, the Spanish slowly returned to the land they had left. The Navajo separation made it extremely easy for the Spanish to regain control of the area again. If the Spanish hadn’t thought ahead, this could have potentially set up a repeating pattern of the Spanish leaving when the Navajo were united and coming back when they were divided. (The Long Walk, Denetdale) When the Spanish returned, as had happened before, the Southwest area dropped into a time of turmoil and conflict, but during this time the Spanish went looking for allies. By the 1700s, using their power and the presence of common enemies, the Spanish allied themselves with the Ute, the Comanche, the Pawnee, a few Pueblos, and even a small faction of the Navajo. They were practically unstoppable. Estimations show that in the late 1700s and early 1800s “more than 66 percent of all Navajo families had experienced the loss of members to slavery” of the Spanish and their allies. (The Navajos of Utah, Maryboy and Begay) The allies that the Spanish made would later be the downfall of the Navajo when they banded together with the U.S. The Utes in particular became a hated enemy of the Navajo and were integral in their capture.
(1821) Mexico Gains Independence from Spain
In 1821 Mexico gained independence from Spain. Because of this, while many Spanish people individually remained in the territory, the Spanish government as a whole left the Southwest. Everyone who lived in what was proclaimed to be Mexican territory was declared under the rule of the Republic of Mexico. The Navajo and other tribes who this affected had no say in the treaty, which further normalized the unchecked power that non-natives believed they had over Native Americans. (The Long Walk, Denetdale) Though the power in government had changed hands, for the Navajo the Spanish and Mexican Southwest was essentially equivalent. The slave trade and massacre of Navajo still occurred in comparable amounts regardless of who was formally in charge. (An Historical Overview of the Navajo Relocation, Lacerenza) Though Mexico did try to be better than their predecessor by attempting treaties with the Navajo because of Mexicans flawed understanding of Navajo government and the haste with which the treaties were written, they failed in bringing about a lasting peace. Along with the confusion Mexicans had with the decentralized government of the Navajo, very few people in the Southwest spoke both Navajo and Spanish which made communication very difficult. (The Navajos of Utah, Maryboy and Begay) This clash of culture and lack of understanding on the part of both groups gave the U.S. an open platform for conquest not only of the land but of the people who lived there as well. (An Historical Overview of the Navajo Relocation, Lacerenza)
Attempts ... to enter into meaningful peace treaties with the Navajo people were not worth the paper on which they were written.
-David Begay on attempted treaties with the Navajo at that time
(1846) U.S. Declares War on Mexico
In 1846 the U.S. declared war on Mexico. Thinking that the U.S. would be on their side, the Navajo attempted communication, but the U.S. quickly jumped to the aid of Mexican colonists against the “hostile indians.” (The Navajos of Utah, Maryboy and Begay) Many historians have analyzed this choice and believe it to be for two main reasons. One, the U.S. thought Navajo land would be beneficial to them, as discussed in the Westward Expansion tab, and they couldn’t take that land if they were allies with the Navajo. (The Long Walk, Denetdale) The other reason that is suggested is slightly more subliminal and can be applied to many different case studies of displacement. The reason is that the Mexicans, though not the same by any means as a traditional American, were much more culturally similar to the U.S. than the Navajo. Most Americans didn’t understand the nature- and harmony-based worldview of the Navajo, and as such felt more comfortable siding with the Mexicans. (Moving Together, Goodall) In 1848, the U.S. signed the treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo placing the Navajo again under the rule of a new power without any input from them. The U.S. already had the upper hand with its guns, but when it came to believe that the law was on its side in having complete control over the Navajo it became truly dangerous. (Americans and the Navajo, Carey)
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The map above shows the land given to the U.S. in the treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo. The Navajo live primarily in the Four-Corners region, so this map shows that the treaty essentially gave Navajo land to the U.S.
(G, Andrew. Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. Digital image. Hist580. Wordpress, 3 Aug. 2014. Web. 13 Mar. 2017.) |
(1851) Fort Defiance Is Built
One of the first military actions that the U.S. took when it received new land from the treaty was to build a fort. Fort Defiance (pictured to the left as it would have looked at the time) was built in 1851 by General Sumner in the middle of Navajo territory. (The Navajos of Utah, Maryboy and Begay) Initially the Navajo resented the fort on their homeland, but the presence of the fort soon became a minimal problem in comparison to the people inhabiting it. Over the next few years the Americans stationed in the fort gradually expanded their claims to grazing land surrounding the fort. Not only did the Americans take the prime grazing land, but they shot and killed any Navajo animal that wandered on to what they believed was their land. (The Long Walk, Denetdale) As tension between the two groups grew, communication between them became worse and worse. The U.S., not comprehending the fact that Navajo government did not have one leader who made all of the decisions, attempted treaties that would fall apart days later because another clan of Navajo would not know about its existence. Americans thought that the Navajo just didn't care about the treaties or broke them purposefully, when in reality neither side fully understood the situation. (Broken Rainbow)
(Eastman, Seth. Fort Defiance. Digital image. Subject Index. The Capitol Project, 1873. Web.13 Mar. 2017.)
(Eastman, Seth. Fort Defiance. Digital image. Subject Index. The Capitol Project, 1873. Web.13 Mar. 2017.)
(1860) Barboncito and Manuelito Lead Attack on Fort Defiance
In 1860, Manuelito and Barboncito, two leading chiefs of the Navajo, had finally had enough with the American violence. On April 30th the chiefs, along with about 1,000 Navajo warriors, attacked Fort Defiance. (The Navajos of Utah, Maryboy and Begay) Though the attack was largely unsuccessful because of U.S. guns, the Navajo still kept resisting the occupation of their lands. (The Long Walk, Denetdale) In around 1861, the amount of American soldiers present in and around the fort drastically decreased, leading the Navajo to believe that their efforts had worked. Because of their previous experience with the Pueblo Rebellion, The Navajo though that they had done something similar and had forced out their larger, better equipped enemy. (Americans and the Navajo, Carey) In reality, most of the American soldiers had been called out to help with the Civil War. Because of this believed victory, many Navajo let down their guard which further increased the impact of the American soldiers when they returned. (The Bosque Redondo Memorial, The Military Mission)
It is ironic that while President Lincoln decreed freedom for all slaves, he was setting the stage for another period of slavery--of the Navajo people.
-Bosque Redondo Memorial, The Military Mission
(1862) U.S. Declares War on the Navajo
In 1862, even before the Civil War had ended, troops were sent back out to Fort Defiance under the command of General James Carleton. (Americans and the Navajo, Carey) Carleton wanted the Navajo off of their homeland. He, like many other Americans, thought that the Navajo land would be rich in gold, and he wanted his share. He commanded that the Navajo be taken to a 40 square mile reservation called Bosque Redondo in Eastern New Mexico. The reservation surrounded a U.S. fort called Fort Sumner, named after the creator of Fort Defiance. (The Navajos of Utah, Maryboy and Begay) To assist him in his endeavors, Carleton employed a man called Kit Carson (pictured to the right). Carson used harsh scorched-earth tactics to achieve this goal. Many Navajo today think that Carson betrayed their ancestors. Before he was recruited by Carleton, he was the Indian agent that communicated between the Navajo and the U.S. He lived among the Navajo and “learned how the Navajo lived, and where there homes were, and where there food stores were.” (The Dine Death March 08:28-08:40) This knowledge made him very effective in the way he flushed out the Navajo, but also made him a traitor to thousands of Navajo people. Carson is viewed by many Americans as a frontiersman who was just following orders but most historians agree that Carson’s choice in tactic caused much more damage to the Navajo people and their land than was really necessary. (The Long Walk, Denetdale)
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(Christopher (Kit) Carson. Digital image. The Library of Congress. N.p., 1860-75. Web. 13 Mar. 2017.)
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